Mansa: Only Indian Goddess??
Manasa is the Snake Goddess whose name derives from the Sanskrit root manas, meaning of the mind. Her names include Padmavati, in connection with the lotus leaf born goddess Laksmi and Visahari in vasahari vidya or“the science of poison removal”, as she is believed to be the curer of snake bites. The story of her existence begins when Siva slips away from his wife Durga to meditate by the banks of the Kalidaha pool. There, he is stimulated by the erotic setting, and thinking of his beautiful wife Durga, spills his semen. It runs down the stalk of a lotus leaf to the underworld and there Manasa is born from it.
Vasuki, king of the nagas (serpents) grants her reign over all snakes. Thus she is the Nagesvari or Queen of the Snakes. Certain scholars suggest that the Nagas were not originally snakes, but in ancient Indian art are depicted as people with cobra hoods who were worshipped as gods and demigods by the ‘solar race’ peoples and in many instances some civilizations revered the serpent and the sun as closely connected. The Nagas were people who claimed descent from the Sun and used the hooded serpents (cobras) as their totem.
Snake worship or ophiolatry is an ancient cult among Indians and other races of the world. It is believed that the fear of the snake and the wonder of it brought about its worship all over the world to become a universally revered divinity. Serpent worship and its cult following in India may have been contributed to by the Proto Dravidians with the worship going as far back as the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley. However, even though historical evidence is lacking in its origins, snakes can still be seen on the proto-ithyphallic Siva seal.
Siva
Snake worship is closely tied with the god Siva and Manasa being the daughter of Siva is believed by most scholars to be the reason for her snake worship. It is also believed that snake worship went hand in hand with those civilizations that worshipped the sun. It is an ancient folklore belief that should anyone bring harm to a snake he/she will fall to leprosy and sterility (Khumar Maity 13). Snake worship and the Nagas are also referenced in Indian literature and religious books, such as the Vedas, the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Jatakas.
In the mythic account Manasa returns, ascending the lotus leaf from which she descended and presents herself in front of her father Siva, urging him to take her home with him to Mount Kailasa. Reluctantly, he agrees and hides her in a flower basket for he fears what his wife Durga will think. Before he can explain her existence, Durga finds her in the basket and mistaking her for one of her husband’s temptresses beats her and blinds her in the left eye.
Kadru
This is how she became known as ‘the one eyed goddess. Her left eye is known as her “evil eye” or bisadrsti. It is her poisonous eye from which she can kill with one glance as she releases all her malignant powers with it. Her right eye is her nectar eye or amrtanayan in which she can restore life to whomever she has killed with her left eye. It is believe in India that those people who are blind in one eye possess the evil eye and are seen as an ill-omens. In classical Indian mythology as well as modern folklore the evil eye or ‘poison eye’ is a characteristic of most snakes. Manasa is equated with Kadru, the mother of the serpents, who is also one eyed.
Manasa appears in many forms. One is her true self which is envious, malicious and easily angered where she kills with no remorse and is compared to resemble the cenga fish, a snake-headed fish that is so revolting it is deemed unfit to eat. Her true form is compared to a one-eyed, fish-faced limping old hag (a witch). Another form is the conventional, beautiful and voluptuous goddess with four arms and yellow tinted skin. Her body is decorated only with snakes, much like her father Siva. Her vahana (vehicle) is either the swan or the snake. The Sij plant; of the cactus family, is sacred to Manasa as it has abilities to cure poisons, but on most occasions is not used for worship. She is usually depicted in two different forms of iconography,
Boons
one being her four-arm depiction and the other, a two armed one. In her four armed image she is surrounded by a canopy of seven snake hoods and in her upper right and left hands she holds a snake and a pot, her lower hands are holding a rosary and a manuscript. Some other depictions of her four-armed image include one with one of her hands in the ‘granting a wish posture’ (varada mudra). Her two-arm depiction is of her seated on a lotus flower, under the canopy of seven snakes, a lotus bud in her right hand in the varada pose and a snake in her left hand.
Her most common dhyana, which gives a description of her characteristic features and recited in Manasa worship is, “I adore the goddess, the mother of snakes, whose face is like the moon, who is graceful in appearance, the bountiful, who rides on a swan, the noble one, who wears a red garment, who always gives boons of all kinds, who has smiling face, who is adorned with gold, gems and various other beautiful jewels (obtained) from snakes,
who is accompanied by eight snakes, who has prominent breasts, who is a yogini and who can take any form at will. However, despite Manasa’s many forms it does not appear in the Sastra literature that any sort of image worship takes place, but more over worship in the form of earthen images does take place as well as placing a red colored stone under a sij tree.
Manasar
Manasa is worshipped during the rainy season (June-August), as the rain and floods force the snakes out of their lairs and the chance of getting bit is significantly higher. During this time it is a communal celebration where some villagers will gather clay pots, garlands, conch-shells, iron bangles, red-bordered saris, incense and food offerings like mangos, melons, bananas and sweets. One or more male goats are also sacrificed. The goddess is represented, herself, by a sacred pot (Manasar-bari), filled with water.
This represents her fertility and makes reference to the fertility of the snake. As it is believed the goddess also has inherent power over fertility she is worshipped by women who wish to become mothers. She is also, in some places known as a curer of diseases, the rain-giver as she is worshipped during the rainy season and since snakes are believed to be the guardians of treasure, Manasa is also seen as a wealth giver. Manasa is worshipped by all classes and in many different places which include near a sij tree of bush, in the home or in private shrines and in some villages, by the bank of a river.
Bauris
Her puja (worship), by the Bauris caste, who are low class earthen workers, perform the ceremony during the rainy season outdoors on an earthen altar. Sticks of bamboo are placed in each corner of the altar and tied together with a cotton thread. The altar is marked with vermilion (red) as is the sacred pot where a mango twig is placed upon it.
Among other offerings that are placed on the altar, such as milk, plantain, incense, sandal, lighted lamps, rice, a sij twig is also placed on the altar, wrapped in red cloth. Both the sij plant and the pot are independent symbols of Manasa. After the sacrifice of the goat, or goats in some cases, the performer of the ritual, (any of the villagers can perform the ceremony) places the blood of the goat in another pot and offers it to the goddess asking for protection and wellness. Many other personal sacrifices can be made at this time as well.
Brahmin
Other forms of worship on a higher class scale include a complex formal rite performed by Brahman priests who rely on manuals and utilize specific prayers, breathing techniques (pranayam) and hand movements (mudra) to be followed exactly when performing the worship. A priest consults manuscripts for each step of the puja: the lifting of a flower, the dabbing of a spot of vermilion on the image, the formalized mudras and mantras all done while Sanskrit formulae is recited in the background. The use of Sanskrit is the major difference between the high class Brahmin worship and that of the low class Bauris village worship. Another type is the household worship which takes place in Aug-Sept, known as acanthine or non-cooking.
During this time it is forbidden to light the stove, and rice is cooked the day before and left out in uncovered pots. It is believed by the householders that the goddess will keep the food safe from contamination so it will be safe to eat the next day. The women of the household make earthen images of the goddess called alpana with the rice paste upon the oven and a sij plant is placed over the oven‘s burners. The cold rice is eaten along with cold vegetables after it has been put in cold water, this is called panta bhat and then tea is heated on a small fire and drank to end the day and ceremony.
Jhanpan
The Jhanpan is a annually held festival where snake charmers gather in the streets and exhibit numerous tricks with their snakes. The charmers risk their lives as it is believed that they are inspired by the goddess, otherwise known as possession or bhar. The snake charmers carry their snakes in small wicker baskets called jhanpis and will often allow the snakes to bite their arms and curl around their neck as part of the spectacle.
Quetzalcoatl
Some scholars believe that the Manasa cult and worship are dying out and will disappear within a century, as enthusiasm for her worship is low and confined to the uneducated small villages as modern medicine removes Manasa’s utility from the more modern villages and worshippers.
Quetzalcoatl pronounced Keh-tzal-coh-WAH-tul and roughly translated as the “Feathered Serpent”, the “Plumed Serpent” or the “Quetzal-Feathered Serpent”, is the name of an important Mesoamerican deity who was worshiped throughout the region in one form or another for 1,200 years.
During the Postclassic period (900–1521 CE), several cultures—including the Maya, Toltecs. Aztecs and other polities in Central Mexico—all practiced some version of the cult which had formed around the legends of. Quetzalcoatl. However, the majority of information about this god comes from. Aztec/Mexica sources, including surviving Aztec codexes, as well as oral history told to the Spanish conquistadors.
The Pan-Mesoamerican Quetzalcoatl
Among the Classic Maya, the figure of a feathered serpent is illustrated in many stone monuments and murals. And is often related to the worship of royal ancestors. During the Terminal Classic or Epiclassic. (650–1000 CE) period, the cult of the Feathered Serpent spread dramatically throughout. Mesoamerica, including the central Mexico centers of Xochicalco, Cholula, and Cacaxtla.
The most famous example of the Mayan Quetzalcoatl cult is reflected in the architectural aspects of. Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán Peninsula, where Maya Puuc styles are contrasted with those of the Quetzalcoatl-inspired Toltec.
According to local and colonial legends, the Toltec shaman/king. Quetzalcoatl (known as Kukulcan in the Maya language) arrived in the. Maya region after having been ousted by political rivals, bringing with him not just a. New architectural style but a new set of religious and political practices associated with militarism and human sacrifice.
The Origins of Aztec Quetzalcoatl
Experts on Mesoamerican religion believe that the Aztec (1325–1521 CE) figure of. Quetzalcoatl began with the legend of the pan-Mesoamerican god and blended in a historical. Tollan leader, Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, who reportedly lived 843–895 CE). This man was a heroic figure, probably a king and/or a priest, who left his home in the. Toltec capital of Tula chased out by traitorous priests, but promising to return.
Among the Classic Maya, the figure of a feathered serpent is illustrated in many stone. Monuments and murals and is often related to the worship of royal ancestors. During the Terminal Classic or. Epiclassic (650–1000 CE) period, the cult of the. Feathered Serpent spread dramatically throughout Mesoamerica, including the central Mexico centers of Xochicalco, Cholula, and Cacaxtla.
The most famous example of the Mayan Quetzalcoatl cult is reflected in the architectural aspects of. Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán Peninsula, where Maya Puuc styles are contrasted with those of the Quetzalcoatl-inspired Toltec.
According to local and colonial legends, the Toltec shaman/king Quetzalcoatl. (known as Kukulcan in the Maya language) arrived in the. Maya region after having been ousted by political rivals, bringing with him not just a new. Architectural style but a new set of religious and political practices associated with militarism and human sacrifice.
The Origins of Aztec Quetzalcoatl
Experts on Mesoamerican religion believe that the Aztec (1325–1521 CE) figure of. Quetzalcoatl began with the legend of the pan-Mesoamerican god and blended in a historical. Tollan leader, Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, who reportedly lived 843–895 CE). This man was a heroic figure, probably a king and/or a priest, who left his home in the. Toltec capital of Tula chased out by traitorous priests, but promising to return.
Among the Classic Maya, the figure of a feathered serpent is illustrated in many stone monuments. And murals and is often related to the worship of royal ancestors. During the Terminal Classic or Epiclassic. (650–1000 CE) period, the cult of the Feathered Serpent spread dramatically throughout Mesoamerica, including the central. Mexico centers of Xochicalco, Cholula, and Cacaxtla.
The most famous example of the Mayan Quetzalcoatl cult is reflected in the architectural aspects of. Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán Peninsula, where Maya Puuc styles are contrasted with those of the Quetzalcoatl-inspired Toltec.
According to local and colonial legends, the Toltec shaman/king. Quetzalcoatl (known as Kukulcan in the Maya language) arrived in the. Maya region after having been ousted by political rivals, bringing with him not just a new architectural. Style but a new set of religious and political practices associated with militarism and human sacrifice.
Quetzalcoatl’s Images
The figure of Quetzalcoatl is represented in many different ways according to different epochs and Mesoamerican cultures. He is both represented in his non-human form as a feathered serpent with plumage along its body and. Around the head, as well as in his human form, especially among the. Aztecs and in Colonial codices.
In his human aspect, he is often depicted in dark colors with a red beak, symbolizing Ehecatl, the wind god; and wearing a cut shell as a pendant, symbolizing Venus. In many images, he is depicted wearing a plumed headdress and carrying a plumed shield.
Quetzalcoatl Cult Centers
Numerous circular temples (at Texcoco, Calixtlahuaca, Tlatelolco, and in the. Pino Suarez metro station in Mexico City) are dedicated to Quetzalcoatl in the guise of. Ecahtl, constructed without corners so the wind could easily blow around them.
Extant temples dedicated to the cult of Quetzalcoatl have been identified at many. Mesoamerican sites, such as Xochicalco, Teotihuacan, Cholula, Cempoala, Tula, Mayapan, and Chichen Itza.
Petroglyphs of Lake Onega and the White Sea are the unique samples of primitive monumental. Art that are among the most important ancient cultural and historical attractions of the Northern Europe. They form an individual major centre of. Neolithic rock art characterized by originality and mystery of its pictures, diversity of themes, vivid imagery, abundance of scenes. And multi-figure compositions, good preservation, exceptionally expressive natural surroundings and cultural context represented by nearby ancient settlements.
Onega
Rock art appeared on the granite cliffs of the eastern bank of Lake Onega and the White sea only. 6.6-7 thousand years ago and it was only active during Neolithic era, being drastically different from the similar monuments of. Northern Europe created over many millennia and dating back to various eras. Petroglyph paintings of Karelia were created by representatives of archaeological Pit–Comb Ware culture and Rhomb-Pit Ware culture. This layer of middle and final Neolithic period antiquities is well represented in the basin of. Lake Onega and south-western White sea area.
Physical appearance of creators and contemporaries of Karelian petroglyph can be learned from craniological materials of. Late Mesolithic Oleneostrovsky burial ground located nearby from the Onezhskoe rock sanctuary. Unique horn rods crowned with expressive sculptures of moose heads found in this burial ground are quite similar to. Those on rock carvings and allow us to suggest continuity between Mesolithic and Neolithic population of Karelia.
Silhouette
Comparison of Petroglyphs of Lake Onega and the. White Sea can be prominent in clarification of peculiar development of rock art of various local areas. All petroglyphs of the White sea are located on islands while those of. Lake Onega are mostly located at the capes, but sometimes on coastal islands. In the White sea area predominant are the figures carved for their entire. Silhouette while it is common for the Onega ones to be only traced along the contour or half contour.
In general, the White sea petroglyphs are more realistic than the Onega ones as there are fewer fantastic characters. Onega cliffs also include multi-figure compositions. Though their plots are mostly underdeveloped and there are fewer. Details than in the best rock paintings of the White sea. There are notable differences in themes. Bird images are predominant in the Onega sanctuary while in the White sea one they are few; mostly replaced by high-sided boats with a moose head stem post with visible differences from the linear Onega carvings.
However, a small petroglyph group was discovered recently in the lower reaches of the. Vyg river with carvings of similar narrow boats adorned with swan heads. Onega rock paintings have plenty of half-human half-animal figures almost unknown in the. White sea area, where carvings of people are much more common: hunters for forest and sea animals and birds. Except one case, there are no solar or lunar carvings among the White sea petroglyphs. But there are bows, arrows, skis, plenty of sea animals. And sea hunt scenes, animal and human footprints that are either not represente.
Thus the ancient cultures were linked to each other and perhaps we had common ancestors.